{{pp-move-indef}}{{Topical guide|anarchism}} \n{{Anarchism sidebar}}\n'''Anarchism''' is a [[political philosophy]] encompassing [[anarchist schools of thought|theories and attitudes]] which consider the [[Sovereign state|state]], as compulsory [[government]], to be unnecessary, harmful, and/or undesirable, and promote the [[stateless society|elimination of the state]] or [[anarchy]].<ref name=definitions>*[[Errico Malatesta]], "[http://www.marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm Towards Anarchism]", ''MAN!''. [[Los Angeles]]: International Group of San Francisco. {{OCLC|3930443}}.\n*{{cite journal |url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070514.wxlanarchist14/BNStory/lifeWork/home/\n|title=Working for The Man |journal=[[The Globe and Mail]] |accessdate=2008-04-14 |last=Agrell |first=Siri |date=2007-05-14}}\n*"[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117285 Anarchism]." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 29 August 2006\n*"Anarchism." ''The Shorter [[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''. 2005. P. 14 "Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable."</ref><ref name=slevin>Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics''. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.</ref> Specific anarchists may have additional criteria for what constitutes anarchism, and they often disagree with each other on what these criteria are. According to ''[[The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]'', "there is no single defining position that all anarchists hold, and those considered anarchists at best share a certain [[family resemblance]]."<ref name=oxcom>"Anarchism." ''[[The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]'', [[Oxford University Press]], 2007, p. 31</ref>\n\nThere are many types and traditions of anarchism, generally agrouped into [[socialist anarchism]] and [[individualist anarchism]] or similar two-sides classifications,<ref name="black dict">[[Geoffrey Ostergaard|Ostergaard, Geoffrey]]. "Anarchism". ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.</ref> not all of which are mutually exclusive.<ref>{{cite book|authorlink=Peter Kropotkin |last=Kropotkin |first=Peter |title=Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |year=2002 |page=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=R.B. Fowler|title=The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought|year=1972|journal=Western Political Quarterly|volume=25|issue=4|pages=738–752|doi=10.2307/446800}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Sylvan |first=Richard |chapter=Anarchism |title=A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy |editors=Goodwin, Robert E. and Pettit |publisher=Philip. Blackwell Publishing |year=1995 |page=231}}</ref> Anarchism is usually considered to be a [[far left|radical left-wing]] ideology,<ref name=brooks>{{cite book|quote=Usually considered to be an extreme left-wing ideology, anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the libertarians and anarcho-capitalists of today |last=Brooks |first=Frank H. |year=1994 |title=The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908)  |publisher=Transaction Publishers |page=xi}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Joseph Kahn|title= Anarchism, the Creed That Won’t Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement |year=2000|journal=[[The New York Times]]|issue=5 August}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Colin Moynihan |title=Book Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway|year=2007|journal=New York Times|issue=16 April}}</ref> and much of [[anarchist economics]] and [[anarchist law|anarchist legal philosophy]] reflect [[anti-statism|anti-statist]] interpretations of [[anarcho-communism|communism]], [[collectivist anarchism|collectivism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalism]] or [[participatory economics]]; however, anarchism has always included an economic and legal [[individualist anarchism|individualist]] strain,<ref>{{cite book|last=Stringham |first=Edward |chapter= |title=[http://www.amazon.com/dp/1412805791 Anarchy and the Law. The Political Economy of Choice.] |editors=Stringham, Edward  |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=2007 |page=720}}</ref> with that strain supporting an [[free-market anarchism|anarchist free-market economy]] and [[private property]] (like classical [[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] or today's [[anarcho-capitalism]] and [[agorism]]).<ref>Brooks, Frank H. 1994. ''[http://www.amazon.com/dp/1560001321 The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908)]''. Transaction Publishers. p. xi</ref><ref>[[Jan Narveson|Narveson, Jan]] (2002). [http://books.google.es/books?id=a6hBXZOepB4C&pg=PA186&dq=free-market+anarchism&as_brr=3 Respecting Persons in Theory and Practice. Chapter 11: Anarchist's Case]. "To see this, of course, we must expound the moral outlook underlying anarchism. To do this we must first make an important distinction between two general options in anarchist theory [...] The two are what we may call, respectively, the socialist versus the free-market, or capitalist, versions."</ref><ref name="tormey">Tormey, Simon, Anti-Capitalism, A Beginner's Guide, Oneworld Publications, 2004, p. 118-119</ref> Others, such as [[Panarchism|panarchists]] and [[anarchists without adjectives]], neither advocate nor object to any particular form of organization as long as it is not compulsory. Some [[anarchist schools of thought]] differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme [[individualism]] to complete [[collectivism]].<ref name=slevin/> The central tendency of anarchism as a [[social movement]] have been represented by communist anarchism, with anarcho-individualism being primarily a [[philosophical anarchism|philosophical/literary phenomenon]].<ref>Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press, 2002, page 191</ref> Some anarchists fundamentally oppose all forms of [[coercion]], supporting self-defense or non-violence, while others have supported the use of some coercive measures, including violent revolution and terrorism, on the path to [[anarchy]].<ref>Fowler, R.B. "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought." ''The Western Political Quarterly'', Vol. 25, No. 4. (December, 1972), pp. 743–744</ref>\n\nThe term ''anarchism'' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ἀναρχος, ''anarchos'', meaning "without rulers",<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anarchy Anarchy]. [[Merriam-Webster]] online.</ref><ref>[[Henry Liddell|Liddell, Henry George]], & [[Robert Scott (philologist)|Scott, Robert]], "[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]"[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%237439]</ref> from the prefix ἀν- (''an-'', "without") + ἄρχή (''archê'', "sovereignty, realm, magistracy")<ref>{{cite book|last=Liddell |first=Henry George |coauthors=Scott, Robert |title=A Greek-English Lexicon |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2315894}}</ref> + -ισμός (''-ismos'', from a [[stem (linguistics)|stem]] -ιζειν, ''-izein''). There is some ambiguity with the use of the terms "[[Libertarianism (disambiguation)|libertarianism]]" and "libertarian" in writings about anarchism. Since the 1890s from France,<ref>{{cite book |title=A Short History of Anarchism |last=Nettlau |first=Max |authorlink=Max Nettlau |year=1996 |publisher=Freedom Press |isbn=0900384891 |page=162}}</ref> the term "libertarianism" has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States;<ref>Russell, Dean. [http://www.boogieonline.com/revolution/politics/name.html ''Who is a Libertarian?''], [[Foundation for Economic Education]], "Ideas on Liberty," May, 1955.</ref> its use as a synonym is still common outside the U.S.<ref>Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press 2004 p. 62\n*Goodway, David. Anarchists Seed Beneath the Snow. Liverpool Press. 2006, p. 4\n*MacDonald, Dwight & Wreszin, Michael. Interviews with [[Dwight Macdonald]]. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. p. 82\n*Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv\n*Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126\n*[[George Woodcock|Woodcock, George]]. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press, 2004. (Uses the terms interchangeably, such as on page 10)\n*Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002. p. 183.\n*Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. See Sharp Press, 2001, page 9.\n<br/>\n*Note: the term "libertarianism" has [[Libertarianism (disambiguation)|other meanings]] as well.</ref> Accordingly, "[[libertarian socialism]]" is sometimes used as a synonym for [[socialist anarchism]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Perlin |first=Terry M. |title=Contemporary Anarchism |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1979 |page=40}}</ref><ref>Noam Chomsky, Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, 2004, p. 739</ref> to delineate it from "individualist libertarianism" (individualist anarchism). On the other hand, some use "[[libertarianism]]" to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as "[[libertarian anarchism]]."<ref>Morris, Christopher. 1992. ''An Essay on the Modern State''. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. (Using "libertarian anarchism" synonymously with "individualist anarchism" when referring to individualist anarchism that supports a [[market economy|market society]])</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Burton |first=Daniel C. |title= [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/polin/polin168.pdf Libertarian anarchism] |publisher=Libertarian Alliance |year= |page=}}</ref>\n\n==Origins==\n{{main|History of anarchism}}\nSome claim anarchist themes can be found in the works of [[Taoism|Taoist]] sages [[Laozi]]<ref name="EB1910">Peter Kropotkin, [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/kropotkin/britanniaanarchy.html "Anarchism"], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' 1910</ref> and [[Zhuangzi]]. The latter has been translated, ''"There has been such a thing as letting mankind alone; there has never been such a thing as governing mankind [with success],"'' and ''"A petty thief is put in jail. A great brigand becomes a ruler of a State."''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf|format=PDF|title=Concepts of the role of intellectuals in social change toward laissez faire|author=[[Murray Rothbard]]|accessdate=2008-12-28}}</ref> [[Diogenes of Sinope]] and the [[Cynic]]s, and their contemporary [[Zeno of Citium]], the founder of [[Stoicism]], also introduced similar topics.<ref name="EB1910"/><ref>{{iep|c/cynics.htm|Cynics|Julie Piering}}</ref>\n\nModern anarchism, however, sprang from the secular or religious thought of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], particularly [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'s arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.<ref name=Encarta>"Anarchism", ''[[Encarta]] Online Encyclopedia'' 2006 (UK version)</ref> Although by the turn of the 19th century the term "anarchist" had an entirely positive connotation,<ref name=bbc/> it first entered the English language in 1642 during the [[English Civil War]] as a [[Pejorative|term of abuse]] used by [[Cavalier|Royalists]] to damn those who were fomenting disorder.<ref name=bbc/> By the time of the [[French Revolution]] some, such as the ''[[Enragés]]'', began to use the term positively,<ref>Sheehan, Sean. ''Anarchism'', London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. pg. 85</ref> in opposition to [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobin]] centralisation of power, seeing "revolutionary government" as [[oxymoron]]ic.<ref name=bbc/> From this climate [[William Godwin]] developed what many consider the first expression of [[anarchist schools of thought|modern anarchist thought]].<ref name="godwinsep"/> Godwin was, according to [[Peter Kropotkin]], "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work", <ref name="EB1910"/> while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early [[Edmund Burke]].<ref>Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to [[Edmund Burke]]'s '' [[A Vindication of Natural Society]]''. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in Burke's ''Vindication of Natural Society''; a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence…" – footnote, Ch. 2 ''[[Political Justice]]'' by William Godwin.</ref> Instead, [[Benjamin Tucker]] credits [[Josiah Warren]], an American who promoted stateless and [[voluntary community|voluntary communities]] where all goods and services were [[privatization|private]], with being "the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as Anarchism."<ref>''Liberty'' XIV (December, 1900):1)</ref>\n\nThe first to describe himself as an anarchist was [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]],<ref name=bbc>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20061207.shtml "Anarchism"], [[BBC Radio 4]] program, [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]], Thursday 7 December 2006. Hosted by [[Melvyn Bragg]] of the BBC, with John Keane, Professor of Politics at [[University of Westminster]], [[Ruth Kinna]], Senior Lecturer in Politics at [[Loughborough University]], and [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]], philosopher and historian.</ref> which led some to call him the founder of modern anarchist theory.<ref>Daniel Guerin, ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice'' (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970).</ref> Proudhon proposed [[spontaneous order]], whereby organization emerges without central authority, a "positive anarchy" where order arises when everybody does “what he wishes and only what he wishes"<ref> Proudhon, ''Solution to the Social Problem'', ed. H. Cohen (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927), p.45. </ref> and where "business transactions alone produce the social order."<ref>{{cite book |last=Proudhon |first=Pierre-Joseph |authorlink=Pierre-Joseph Proudhon |title=The Principle of Federation |publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto |year=1979 |isbn=0802054587 |quote=The notion of ''anarchy'' in politics is just as rational and positive as any other. It means that once industrial functions have taken over from political functions, then business transactions alone produce the social order.}}</ref> Like Godwin, Proudhon opposed violent revolutionary action. He saw anarchy as "a form of government or constitution in which public and private consciousness, formed through the development of science and law, is alone sufficient to maintain order and guarantee all liberties. In it, as a consequence, the institutions of the police, preventive and repressive methods, officialdom, taxation, etc., are reduced to a minimum. In it, more especially, the forms of monarchy and intensive centralization disappear, to be replaced by federal institutions and a pattern of life based on the commune."<ref>{{cite book |last=Proudhon |first=Pierre-Joseph |authorlink=Pierre-Joseph Proudhon |title=Selected Writings |publisher=Anchor Books |location=[[Garden City, New York]] |year=1969 | oclc = 221546850 }}</ref> By "commune", Proudhon meant local [[self-government]] or according to literal translation, "municipality", rather than a communist arrangement.<ref>Bernstein, Samuel. 1985. ''French Political and Intellectual''. History. Transaction Publishers. p. 174</ref> Proudhon's famous declaration that "[[Property is Theft!]]," along with his less famous declaration that "Property is Liberty,"<ref>[http://www.economictheories.org/2008/11/joseph-proudhon-private-property.html Pierre Joseph Proudhon What Is Property.  Criticism Of Private Property and Socialism.] History Of Economic Theory and Thought</ref><ref>[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/hasrg/frnit/pdfs_gimon/canto.pdf Proudhon: The first liberal socialist], [[Stanford University]]</ref> inspired different [[Anarchist economics|anarchist economic models]] throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.\n\n==Schools of thought==\n{{main|Anarchist schools of thought}}\nAnarchist schools of thought had been generally grouped in two main historical traditions, individualist and collectivist ones, which have some different origins, values and evolution.<ref>[http://libertarian-labyrinth.org/archive/Anarchism Anarchism], [http://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1855069954 The New Encyclopedia of Social Reform] (1908)</ref><ref name=slevin/><ref name="black dict"/> The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises [[negative liberty]], i.e. opposition to state or social control over the individual, while those in the collectivist wing emphasise [[positive liberty]] to achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that society ought to fulfill, "recognizing equality of entitlement".<ref>Harrison, Kevin and Boyd, Tony. ''Understanding Political Ideas and Movements''. Manchester University Press 2003, p. 251</ref> In chronological and theorical sense there are classical -those created throughout the 19th century- and post-classical anarchist schools -those created since the mid-20th century and after.\n\n[[Image:WilliamGodwin.jpg|thumb|left|[[William Godwin]], usually considered an individualist anarchist, is often regarded as producing the first philosophical expression of anarchism]]\n===Individualist anarchism===\n{{main|Individualist anarchism}}\nIndividualist anarchism comprises several traditions<ref>Ward, Colin. ''Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction''. [[Oxford University Press]], 2004, p. 2</ref> which hold that "individual conscience and the pursuit of self-interest should not be constrained by any collective body or public authority."<ref>Heywood, Andrew, ''Key Concepts in Politics'', Palgrave, ISBN 0-312-23381-7, 2000, p. 46</ref> Individualist anarchism is supportive of property being held privately, unlike the socialist/collectivist/communitarian wing which advocates common ownership.<ref>Freeden, Michael. ''Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019829414X. pp. 314</ref> Individualist anarchism has been espoused by individuals such as [[Max Stirner]], [[William Godwin]],<ref name=woodcock20>Woodcock, George. 2004. ''Anarchism: A History Of Libertarian Ideas And Movements''. Broadview Press. p. 20</ref> [[Henry David Thoreau]],<ref>Johnson, Ellwood. ''The Goodly Word: The Puritan Influence in America Literature'', Clements Publishing, 2005, p. 138.<br />''Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences'', edited by Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, Alvin Saunders Johnson, 1937, p. 12.</ref> [[Josiah Warren]], [[Albert Jay Nock]]<ref>Vincent, Andrew. ''Modern Political Ideologies''. Wiley-Blackwell (pg. 116)</ref> and [[Murray Rothbard]].<ref> Brooks, Frank H. 1994. ''The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908)''. Transaction Publishers. p. xi</ref><ref>Gerard Radnitzky, Hardy Bouillon. Libertarians and Liberalism. Avebury, 1996. p. 49</ref><ref>Edward Craig. Rutledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis, 1998. p. 248.</ref>\n\n====William Godwin====\nIn 1793,  William Godwin who has often<ref>Everhart, Robert B. The Public School Monopoly: A Critical Analysis of Education and the State in American Society. Pacific Institute for Public Policy Research, 1982. p. 115</ref> been cited as the first anarchist, wrote ''[[Political Justice]]'', which some consider to be the first expression of anarchism.<ref name="godwinsep"/><ref>Adams, Ian. Political Ideology Today. Manchester University Press, 2001. p. 116</ref> Godwin, a [[philosophical anarchist]], opposed revolutionary action and saw a [[Limited government|minimal state]] as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.<ref name="godwinsep">{{sep entry|godwin|William Godwin|Mark Philip|2006-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=[[Political Justice|Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners]] |last=Godwin |first=William |authorlink=William Godwin |year=1796 |publisher=G.G. and J. Robinson |oclc=2340417 |origyear=1793}}</ref> Godwin advocated extreme [[individualism]], proposing that all cooperation in labor be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.<ref>''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia''. Retrieved 7 December 2006, from [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9037183 Encyclopædia Britannica Online]</ref><ref name=pmcl119>Paul McLaughlin.  Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 119</ref> Godwin was a utilitarian who believed that all individuals are not of equal value, with some of us "of more worth and importance' than others depending on our utility in bringing about social good. Therefore he does not believe in equal rights, but the person's life that should be favored that is most conducive to the general good.<ref name=pmcl119/> Godwin opposed government because he saw it as infringing on the individual's right to "private judgement" to determine which actions most maximize utility, but also makes a critique of all authority over the individual's judgement. This aspect of Godwin's philosophy, stripped of utilitarian motivations, was developed into a more extreme form later by Stirner.<ref>Paul McLaughlin.  Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 123</ref>\n\n[[Image:Max stirner.jpg|thumb|[[19th century philosophy|19th century philosopher]] [[Max Stirner]], usually considered a prominent early [[individualist anarchist]] (sketch by [[Friedrich Engels]]).]]\n\n====Egoism====\n{{details|Philosophy of Max Stirner}}\nThe most extreme<ref>Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press, 2006, page 99</ref> form of individualist anarchism, called "egoism,"<ref>Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press, 2006, page 99</ref> was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, Max Stirner.<ref name="SEP-Stirner">{{sep entry|max-stirner|Max Stirner|[[David Leopold]]|2006-08-04}}</ref>  Stirner's ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'', published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy.<ref name = "SEP-Stirner"/> According to Stirner's conception, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire,<ref>The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge. Encyclopedia Corporation. p. 176</ref> without regard for God, state, or moral rules.<ref>Miller, David. "Anarchism." 1987. ''The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought''. Blackwell Publishing. p 11</ref> To Stirner, rights were ''[[reification|spooks]]'' in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality"{{ndash}} he supported a concept of property held by force of might rather than moral right.<ref>"What my might reaches is my property; and let me claim as property everything I feel myself strong enough to attain, and let me extend my actual property as fas as ''I'' entitle, that is, empower myself to take…" In Ossar, Michael. 1980. ''Anarchism in the Dramas of Ernst Toller''. SUNY Press. p. 27</ref> By "property" he is not referring only to things but to other people as well.<ref>Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 194</ref> Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw "associations of egoists" where respect for ruthlessness drew people together.<ref name=woodcock20/> Even murder is permissible "if it is right for me."<ref>Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 191</ref> Stirner saw the state as illegitimate but did not see individuals as having a duty to eliminate it nor does he recommend that they try to eliminate it; rather, he advocates that they disregard the state when it conflicts with their autonomous choices and go along with it when doing so is conducive to their interests.<ref>Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 190</ref> However, while he thought there was no duty to eliminate state, he does think it will eventually collapse as a result of the spread of egoism.<ref>"Max Stirner". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>\n\nIn Russia, individualist anarchism inspired by Stirner combined with an appreciation for [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] attracted a small following of bohemian artists and intellectuals such as [[Lev Chernyi]], as well as a few lone wolves who found self-expression in crime and violence.<ref name=levy>Levy, Carl. "[http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568770_1/Anarchism.html Anarchism]." Microsoft [[Encarta]] Online Encyclopedia 2007.</ref> They rejected organizing, believing that only unorganized individuals were safe from coercion and domination, believing this kept them true to the ideals of anarchism.<ref>Avrich, Paul. "The Anarchists in the Russian Revolution." ''Russian Review'', Vol. 26, No. 4. (October, 1967). p. 343</ref> This type of individualist anarchism inspired [[anarcho-feminist]] [[Emma Goldman]].<ref name=levy/> Though Stirner's egoism is individualist, it has also influenced some anarcho-communists.<ref>"For Ourselves Council for Generalized Self-Management" discusses Stirner and speaks of a "communist egoism," which is said to be a "synthesis of individualism and collectivism," and says that "greed in its fullest sense is the only possible basis of communist society."For Ourselves, [http://home.teleport.com/~rasputin/RTBGreedy-v1_2_5-en.htm] ''The Right to Be Greedy: Theses On The Practical Necessity Of Demanding Everything'', 1974.</ref>\n\n[[Image:LysanderSpooner.jpg|thumb|left|[[Lysander Spooner]], one of the biggest exponents of classic American anarchism. He supported [[natural law]] and [[market economy]].]]\n\n====Free-market individualism====\n{{further|[[Individualist anarchism in the United States]]|[[Free-market anarchism]]}}\nAnother form of individualist anarchism was found in the United States, as advocated by the "Boston anarchists,"<ref name=levy /> By default American individualists didn't have any problem that "one man employ another" or that "he direct him," in his labor but demanded that "all natural opportunities requisite to the production of wealth be accessible to all on equal terms and that monopolies arising from special privileges created by law be abolished."<ref>Madison, Charles A. "Anarchism in the United States." ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', Vol 6, No 1, January 1945, p. 53.</ref> They believed [[state monopoly capitalism]] (defined as a state-sponsored monopoly)<ref name=schwartzman>Schwartzman, Jack. "Ingalls, Hanson, and Tucker: Nineteenth-Century American Anarchists." ''American Journal of Economics and Sociology'', Vol. 62, No. 5 (November, 2003). p. 325</ref> prevented labor from being fully rewarded. Even among the nineteenth century American individualists, there was not a monolithic doctrine, as they disagreed amongst each other on various issues including [[intellectual property]] rights and [[Possession (law)|possession]] versus [[property]] in land.<ref>Spooner, Lysander. [http://lysanderspooner.org/intellect/contents.htm ''The Law of Intellectual Property'']</ref><ref name=watner>[[Carl Watner|Watner, Carl]] (1977). {{PDFlink|[http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/1_4/1_4_4.pdf Benjamin Tucker and His Periodical, Liberty]|868&nbsp;KB}}. ''[[Journal of Libertarian Studies]]'', Vol. 1, No. 4, p. 308</ref><ref>[[Carl Watner|Watner, Carl]]. "{{PDFlink|[http://www.mises.org/journals/lf/1975/1975_03.pdf Spooner Vs. Liberty]"|1.20&nbsp;MB}} in ''The Libertarian Forum''. March 1975. Volume VII, No 3. ISSN 0047–4517. pp. 5–6.</ref> A major cleft occurred later in the 19th century when Tucker and some others abandoned [[natural right]]s and converted to an "egoism" modeled upon [[Philosophy of Max Stirner|Stirner's philosophy]].<ref name=watner/> Some "Boston anarchists", like Tucker, identified themselves as "socialist" – a term which at the time denoted a broad concept – by which he meant a commitment to solving "[[the labor problem]]" (i.e. improving conditions of the working class) by radical economic reform.<ref>Brooks, Frank H. 1994. ''The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty'' (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. 75.</ref> By the turn of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed,<ref>[[Paul Avrich|Avrich, Paul]]. 2006. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. [[AK Press]]. p. 6</ref> although the individualist anarchist tradition was later revived with modifications by [[Murray Rothbard]] and his [[anarcho-capitalism]] in the mid-twentieth century, as a current of the broader [[libertarianism|libertarian]] movement.<ref name=levy /><ref>Miller, David. "Anarchism." ''The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'' 1987. p. 11</ref>\n\n[[Image:Proudhon.jpg|thumb|[[Mutualism (economic theory)|Mutualist]] [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] (1809–1865) was the first self-described anarchist.]]\n\n===Mutualism===\n{{main|Mutualism (economic theory)}}\nMutualism began in 18th century English and French labor movements before taking an anarchist form associated with [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in France and others in the United States.<ref>"A member of a community," ''The Mutualist''; this 1826 series criticized [[Robert Owen]]'s proposals, and has been attributed to a dissident Owenite, possibly from the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests of Valley Forge; Wilbur, Shawn, 2006, "More from the 1826 "Mutualist"?"</ref> Proudhon's ideas were introduced by [[Charles Anderson Dana|Charles A. Dana]],<ref>Dana, Charles A. ''[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/proudhon/dana.html Proudhon and his "Bank of the People"]'' (1848).</ref> to [[individualist anarchists]] in the United States including [[Benjamin Tucker]] and [[William Batchelder Greene]].<ref>Tucker, Benjamin R., "On Picket Duty", ''Liberty (Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order) (1881–1908)''; 5 January 1889; 6, 10; APS Online pg. 1</ref>\n\nMutualist anarchism is concerned with [[reciprocity]], free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. According to Greene, in the mutualist system each worker would receive "just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount."<ref>"Communism versus Mutualism", ''Socialistic, Communistic, Mutualistic and Financial Fragments''. (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1875) [[William Batchelder Greene]]: "Under the mutual system, each individual will receive the just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount; and so much as the individual laborer will then get over and above what he has earned will come to him as his share in the general prosperity of the community of which he is an individual member."</ref> Mutualism has been retrospectively characterized sometimes as being economic individualism,<ref>Carson, Kevin A. ''Studies in Mutualist Political Economy [http://www.mutualist.org/id112.html Preface]''.</ref> and other times as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America'', Princeton University Press 1996 ISBN 0-69-04494-5, p.6<br />''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', Blackwell Publishing 1991 ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p.11</ref> Proudhon first characterized his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property."<ref>Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. ''What Is Property?'' Princeton, MA: Benjamin R. Tucker, 1876. p. 281.</ref>\n\n===Socialist anarchism===\n{{main|Socialist anarchism}}\nSocialist anarchism is one of two different broad categories of anarchism, the other category being individualist anarchism. The term socialist anarchism is often used to identify [[communitarian]] forms of anarchism that emphasize cooperation and mutual aid. Socialist anarchism includes [[anarcho-collectivism]], [[anarcho-communism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism]], [[social ecology]] and sometimes [[mutualism]].\n\n====Collectivist anarchism====\n{{main|Collectivist anarchism}}\n''Collectivist anarchism'', also referred to as ''revolutionary socialism'' or a form of such<ref>Morris, Brian. Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd., 1993. p. 76</ref><ref>Rae, John. Contemporary Socialism. C. Scribner's sons, 1901, Original from Harvard University. p. 261</ref>, is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Johann Most]].<ref name = "Patsouras-p54">Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54</ref><ref>Avrich, Paul. 2006. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. [[AK Press]]. p. 5</ref> It is a specific tendency, not to be confused with the broad category sometimes called [[collectivist]] or [[communitarian]] anarchism.<ref>Morris, Christopher W. 1998. ''An Essay on the Modern State''. Cambridge University Press. p 50. The collectivist ''category'' is also sometimes known as social, socialist, or communitarian anarchism category.</ref> Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivized. This was to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence, or "[[propaganda by the deed]]," which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production.<ref name = "Patsouras-p54"/>  However, collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income, as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by later anarcho-communists as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system".<ref>{{cite book |last=Kropotkin |first=Peter |title=The Conquest of Bread |publisher=AK Press |location=Edinburgh |year=2007 |chapter=13 |isbn=9781904859109}}</ref> Anarchist communist and collectivist ideas were not mutually exclusive; although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labor, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.<ref>{{cite web|authorlink=James Guillaume|last=Guillaume |first=James |url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/guillaume/works/ideas.htm |title=Ideas on Social Organization |year=1876}}</ref> Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with [[Marxism]] but opposed the Marxist [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bakunin |first=Mikhail |title=Statism and Anarchy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1990 |isbn=0521361826 |quote=They [the Marxists] maintain that only a dictatorship{{ndash}} their dictatorship, of course{{ndash}} can create the will of the people, while our answer to this is: No dictatorship can have any other aim but that of self-perpetuation, and it can beget only slavery in the people tolerating it; freedom can be created only by freedom, that is, by a universal rebellion on the part of the people and free organization of the toiling masses from the bottom up.}}</ref>\n\n[[Image:Kropotkin Nadar.jpg|thumb|left|Anarcho-communist [[Peter Kropotkin]] believed that in [[anarchy]], workers would spontaneously self-organize to produce goods in common for all society.]]\n\n====Anarchist communism====\n{{main|Anarchist communism}}\nAnarchist communists propose that the freest form of social organisation would be a society composed of [[self-governance|self-governing]] [[Commune (socialism)|communes]] with collective use of the [[means of production]], organized by [[direct democracy]], and related to other communes through [[federation]].<ref name="LibCom">[[Isaac Puente|Puente, Isaac]].[http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/libcom.html "Libertarian Communism"]. ''The Cienfuegos Press Anarchist Review''. Issue 6 Orkney 1982 </ref> However, some anarchist communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and favor [[consensus democracy]].<ref>[[David Graeber|Graeber, David]] and Grubacic, Andrej. ''Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century''</ref> \n\nIn anarchist communism, as money would be abolished, individuals would not receive direct [[Remuneration|compensation]] for labour (through sharing of [[Profit (economics)|profits]] or payment) but would have free access to the resources and surplus of the commune.<ref>Miller. ''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', Blackwell Publishing (1991) ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 12</ref> According to anarchist communist [[Peter Kropotkin]] and later [[Murray Bookchin]], the members of such a society would spontaneously perform all necessary labour because they would recognize the benefits of communal enterprise and mutual aid.<ref>\n* Kropotkin, Peter ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'', 1998 paperback, London: Freedom Press. ISBN 0-900384-36-0, also at [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4341 Project Gutenberg]\n* Kropotkin, Peter ''[[The Conquest of Bread]]'', first published 1892, also at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/kropotkin/conquest/toc.html Anarchy Archives]\n* Kropotkin, Peter ''[[Fields, Factories and Workshops]]'', available at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/kropotkin/fields.html Anarchy Archives]\n* Bookchin, Murray ''Post Scarcity Anarchism'' (1971 and 2004) ISBN 1–904859–06–2.</ref>{{page number}} Kropotkin believed that private [[property]] was one of the causes of oppression and exploitation and called for its abolition,<ref name=kropcon/><ref>[[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], Peter. ''Words of a Rebel'', p99.</ref> advocating instead common ownership.<ref name=kropcon>{{cite book |title=The Conquest of Bread |last=Kropotkin |first=Peter |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1907 |publisher=Putnam |location=New York |isbn=7195197 |page=202 }}</ref> Kropotkin said that "houses, fields, and factories will no longer be private property, and that they will belong to the commune or the nation and money, wages, and trade would be abolished."<ref>Peter Kropotkin, ''The Conquest of Bread''</ref> Kropotkin's work ''Mutual Aid'' criticized [[social Darwinism]], arguing that cooperation is more natural than competition. ''Conquest of Bread'' was essentially a handbook on the organization of a society after the social revolution.\n\nIn response to those criticizing Kropotkin for supporting expropriation of homes and means of production from those who did not wish to take part in anarcho-communism, he replied that if someone did not want to join the commune they would be left alone as long as they are a "peasant who is in possession of just the amount of land he can cultivate," or "a family inhabiting a house which affords them just enough space... considered necessary for that number of people" or an artisan "working with their own tools or handloom."<ref name="Kropotkin-Act-104-05">Kropotkin ''Act for yourselves.'' N.Walter and H. Becker, eds. (London: Freedom Press 1985) [p. 104-5]</ref> arguing that "[t]he landlord owes his riches to the poverty of the peasants, and the wealth of the capitalist comes from the same source."<ref name="Kropotkin-Act-104-05" />\n\nThe status of anarchist communism within anarchism is disputed, because most individualist anarchists consider communitarianism incompatible with [[political freedom]].<ref>[[Victor Yarros|Yarros, Victor S.]] "A Princely Paradox", ''Liberty'', Vol 4. No. 19, Saturday, 9 April 1887, Whole Number 97; Tucker, Benjamin. "Labor and Its Pay"; Appleton, Henry. "Anarchism, True and False", ''Liberty'' 2.24, no. 50, 6 September 1884, p. 4; Swartz, Clarence Lee. ''What is Mutualism?''</ref> However, anarcho-communism does not always have a [[communitarian]] philosophy, Some forms of anarchist communism are [[Ethical egoism|egoist]],<ref>Christopher Gray, ''Leaving the Twentieth Century'', p. 88.</ref> and are very influenced by radical individualist philosophy, believing that anarcho-communism does not require a communitarian nature at all. Anarchist communist [[Emma Goldman]] blended the philosophies of both Max Stirner and Kropotkin in her own.<ref>Emma Goldman, ''[[Anarchism and Other Essays]]'', p. 50.</ref> \n\n[[Platformism]] is an anarchist communist tendency in the tradition of [[Nestor Makhno]], who argued for the "vital need of an organization which, having attracted most of the participants in the anarchist movement, would establish a common tactical and political line for anarchism and thereby serve as a guide for the whole movement."<ref name=Platformtext>{{cite book |last=Dielo Trouda |authorlink=Dielo Truda |title=Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft) |origyear=1926 |url=http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000 |accessdate=2006-10-24 |year=2006 |publisher=FdCA |location=Italy}}</ref>\n\n====Anarcho-syndicalism====\n{{main|Syndicalism|Anarcho-syndicalism}}\n[[Image:Anarchist flag.svg|right|thumb|A common [[Anarcho-syndicalism|Anarcho-Syndicalist]] flag.]]\nIn the early 20th century, anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism.<ref>Berry, David, ''A History of the French Anarchist Movement'', 1917–1945 p.134</ref>  With greater focus on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism, [[syndicalism]] posits radical [[trade union]]s as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society, democratically [[Workers' self-management|self-managed by the workers]].\n\nAnarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system and private ownership of the means of production, which they believe lead to class divisions. Important principles include workers' solidarity, [[direct action]] (such as [[general strike]]s and workplace recuperations), and [[workers' self-management]]. This is compatible with other branches of anarchism, and anarcho-syndicalists often subscribe to [[anarchist communism|anarchist communist]] or [[collectivist anarchist]] [[economic system]]s.<ref name="faq-social">{{cite book |editor=Iain Mckay |title=[[An Anarchist FAQ]] |publisher=[[AK Press]] |location=Stirling |year=2008 |isbn=1902593901 |oclc=182529204|chapter=Are there different types of social anarchism? |url=http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secA3.html#seca32}}</ref>  Its advocates propose labour organization as a means to create the foundations of a trade union centered anarchist society within the current system and bring about social revolution. An early leading anarcho-syndicalist thinker was [[Rudolf Rocker]], whose 1938 pamphlet ''Anarchosyndicalism'' outlined a view of the movement's origin, aims and importance to the future of labour.<ref name="faq-social"/><ref>[http://www.spunk.org/library/writers/rocker/sp001495/rocker_as1.html ''Anarchosyndicalism]'' by [[Rudolf Rocker]], retrieved 7 September 2006</ref>\n\nAlthough more often associated with labor struggles of the early 20th century (particularly in [[Anarchism in France|France]] and [[Anarchism in Spain|Spain]]), many syndicalist organizations are active today, united across national borders by membership in the [[International Workers Association]], including the [[Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden]] (SAC) in [[Sweden]], the ''[[Unione Sindacale Italiana]]'' (USI) in [[Italy]], the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] and the [[Confederación General del Trabajo|CGT]] in Spain, the Workers' Solidarity Movement (WSM) of Ireland, and the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] in the United States.\n\n===Anarchism without adjectives===\n{{main|Anarchism without adjectives}}\n"Anarchism without adjectives", in the words of historian George Richard Esenwein, "referred to an [[hyphen|unhyphenated]] form of anarchism, that is, a doctrine without any qualifying labels such as [[Anarchist communism|communist]], [[collectivism|collectivist]], [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualist]], or [[individualist anarchism|individualist]]. For others,…[it] was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools."<ref>Esenwein, George Richard "Anarchist Ideology and the Working Class Movement in Spain, 1868–1898" [p. 135] </ref> "Anarchism without adjectives" emphasizes harmony among various anarchist factions and attempts to unite them around their shared anti-authoritarian beliefs.\nThe position was first adopted in 1889 by [[Fernando Tarrida del Mármol]] as a call for [[toleration]], after being troubled by the "bitter debates" among the different anarchist movements.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 6</ref> [[Voltairine de Cleyre]],<ref>Voltairine De Cleyre, "Why I Am an Anarchist"</ref> [[Errico Malatesta]],<ref>[[Max Nettlau|Nettlau, Max]]. ''A Short History of Anarchism'' [p. 198–9]</ref> and [[Fred Woodworth]] are noteworthy exponents of the view.<ref>''[[Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]]'', [[Paul Avrich]] (2006). p. 475</ref>\n\n===Post-classical schools of thought===\n[[Image:Bey hakim.jpg|thumb|right|[[Temporary Autonomous Zone]] theorist [[Peter Lamborn Wilson|Hakim Bey]] is an influential figure in post-leftist anarchist circles.]]\nAnarchism continues to generate many eclectic and [[Syncretic politics|syncretic]] philosophies and movements; since the revival of anarchism in the [[United States|U.S.]] in the 1960s,<ref name="revival">{{cite journal\n |last=Williams\n |first=Leonard\n |year=2007\n |month=September\n |title=Anarchism Revived\n |journal=New Political Science\n |volume=29\n |issue=3\n |pages=297–312\n |doi=10.1080/07393140701510160\n }}\n</ref> a number of new movements and schools have emerged. [[Anarcho-capitalism]] developed from radical anti-state [[libertarianism]] as a rejuvenated form of [[individualist anarchism]], it draws from ideas like [[Austrian School]], [[law and economics]] or [[public choice]],<ref>Edward Stringham,  [http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=53&articleID=686 ''Anarchy, State, and Public Choice''], Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2005.</ref> while the burgeoning [[feminism|feminist]] and [[environmentalism|environmentalist]] movements also produced anarchist offshoots.\n\n[[Post-left anarchy]] is a tendency which seeks to distance itself from the traditional "[[left-wing politics|Left]]" and to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary "leftist" movements, single issue causes and calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought, and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside the leftist milieu. [[Post-anarchism]] is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought developed by [[Saul Newman]] and associated with thinkers such as [[Todd May]], [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattari]]. It draws from a wide range of ideas including [[post-modernism]], [[autonomist marxism]], [[post-left anarchy]], [[situationism]] and [[postcolonialism]].\n\nAnother recent form of anarchism critical of formal anarchist movements is [[insurrectionary anarchism]], which advocates informal organization and active resistance to the state; its proponents include [[Wolfi Landstreicher]] and [[Alfredo M. Bonanno]].\n\n[[Image:Murray Rothbard.jpg|thumb|left|[[Murray Rothbard]] (1926–1995), 20th century progenitor of anarcho-capitalism who asserted that "capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism."<ref>"[http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard103.html Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard]" ''The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal''. 25 February 1972.</ref>]]\n\n====Anarcho-capitalism====\n{{main|Anarcho-capitalism|Free-market anarchism}}\nAnarcho-capitalism (or free-market anarchism<ref>"This volume honors the foremost contemporary exponent of market anarchism. One contributor describes Murray Rothbard as 'the most ideologically committed zero-State academic economist on earth'." Review by Lawrence H. White of "Man, Economy, and Liberty: Essays in honor of Murray N. Rothbard", published in ''Journal of Economic Literature'', Vol XXVIII, June 1990, page 664</ref>) is "based on a belief in the freedom to own private [[property]], a rejection of any form of governmental authority or intervention, and the upholding of the competitive free market as the main mechanism for social interaction."<ref>"Anarcho-capitalism." ''Oxford English Dictionary''. 2004. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> Because of the historically [[Anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]] nature of much of anarchist thought, the status of [[Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism|anarcho-capitalism within anarchism]] is disputed, particularly by [[Anarchist communism|communist anarchists]].<ref>Jainendra, Jha. 2002. "Anarchism." ''Encyclopedia of Teaching of Civics and Political Science''. p. 52. Anmol Publications.</ref> Conversely, anarcho-capitalists sometimes argue that socialist schools of anarchism are themselves logically impossible.<ref>[[Jan Narveson|Narveson, Jan]]. 2008. "[http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=PUev30VZ04kC&pg=PP1&dq=anarchism/minarchism&ei=OqVWSs2BHZKAzgTYzPwi Anarchism/Minarchism]" p. 103 .Ashgate Publishing.</ref>\n\nAnarcho-capitalists distinguish between [[free market]] capitalism – peaceful voluntary exchange – from [[state capitalism]], which [[Murray Rothbard]] defined as a collusive partnership between [[big business]] and government that uses [[coercion]] to subvert the free market.<ref>[[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray N]]. "A Future of Peace and Capitalism." ''Modern Political Economy''. James H. Weaver (ed.). pp 419. Allyn and Bacon.</ref><ref>[[Murray Rothbard]], ''A Future of Peace and Capitalism''; Murray Rothbard, ''Left and Right: The Prospects for Liberty''.</ref> Whether in its [[natural right]]s-based, [[contractarian]], or [[utilitarian]] formulations, anarcho-capitalism has a theory of [[legitimacy]] that supports private property as long as it was obtained by labor, trade, or gift.<ref name=confiscation>Rothbard, Murray (1969) {{PDFlink|[http://mises.org/journals/lf/1969/1969_06_15.pdf ''Confiscation and the Homestead Principle'']|580&nbsp;KB}} ''The Libertarian Forum'' Vol. I, No. VI (15 June 1969) Retrieved 5 August 2006</ref> Proponents argue that in an anarcho-capitalist society, voluntary market processes would result in the provision of social institutions such as [[Police|law enforcement]], [[National security|defence]] and [[infrastructure]] by competing for-profit firms, [[Charity (practice)|charities]] or [[voluntaryism|voluntary associations]] rather than the [[Sovereign state|state]].<ref>[[Karl Hess|Hess, Karl]]. "[http://fare.tunes.org/books/Hess/dop.html The Death of Politics]." ''Playboy Magazine'', March 1969</ref> In Rothbardian anarcho-capitalism, law (the non-aggression principle) is enforced by the market but not created by it, while according to [[David D. Friedman]]'s utilitarian version, the law itself is produced by the market.\n[[Image:Anarcho-capitalist flag.svg|thumb|A yellow and black flag is often used to represent [[Anarcho-capitalism]].]]\nAlthough the term ''anarcho-capitalism'' was coined by Rothbard, and its origin is attributed to 1960s [[United States]], some historians, including Rothbard, trace the school of thought as far back as the mid-19th century, to market theorists such as [[Gustave de Molinari]].<ref>[[Ralph Raico|Raico, Ralph]] (2004) [http://www.mises.org/story/1787 ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century''] Ecole Polytechnique, [http://www.crea.polytechnique.fr/index.htm Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee], Unité associée au CNRS</ref><ref>Rothbard, Murray. Preface. The Production of Security. By Gustave Molinari. 1849, 1977. [http://praxeology.net/MR-GM-PS.htm]</ref> Anarcho-capitalism has drawn influence from pro-market theorists such as Molinari, [[Frédéric Bastiat]], and [[Robert Nozick]], as well as American individualist thinkers such as [[Benjamin Tucker]] and [[Lysander Spooner]].<ref>DeLeon, David. The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978, p. 127</ref><ref>''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', 1987, ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 290: "A student and disciple of the Austrian economist [[Ludwig von Mises]], Rothbard combined the laissez-faire economics of his teacher with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the 19th century, such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker. (Rothbard himself is on the anarchist wing of the movement.)"</ref> Considered a form of [[individualist anarchism]],<ref>Adams, Ian. 2002. ''Political Ideology Today''. p. 135. Manchester University Press; Ostergaard, Geoffrey. 2003. "Anarchism." ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought''. W. Outwaite ed. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.</ref> it differs from the individualism of the Boston anarchists of the 19th century in its rejection of the [[labor theory of value]] (and its [[Norm (philosophy)|normative]] implications) in favor of the [[Neoclassical economics|neoclassical]] or [[Austrian School]] [[Marginalism|marginalist]] view. Anarcho-capitalist ideas have contributed to the development of [[agorism]],<ref name="newlibman">{{cite book |last=Konkin |first=Samuel Edward |title=New Libertarian Manifesto |publisher=KoPubCo |year=2006 |isbn=9780977764921 |url=http://agorism.info/NewLibertarianManifesto.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-12-28 }}</ref> [[autarchism]], [[voluntaryism]],<ref>[[Carl Watner|Watner, Carl]]. [http://www.voluntaryist.com/forthcoming/historyofvoluntaryism.php On the History of the Word "Voluntaryism"]</ref> and [[crypto-anarchism]].<ref>[[Vernor Vinge]], James Frankel. ''[[True Names|True Names: And the Opening of the Cyberspace Frontier]]'' (2001), Tor Books, p.44</ref> Two institutes related to capitalist anarchism are [[Center for Libertarian Studies]] and [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]].\n\n====Anarcha-feminism====\n{{main|Anarcha-feminism}}\n[[Image:Anfem.svg|thumb|A purple and black flag is often used to represent [[Anarcha-feminism]].]]\nAnarcha-feminism is a synthesis of [[radical feminism]] and anarchism that views [[patriarchy]] (male domination over women) as a fundamental manifestation of compulsory government – to which anarchists are opposed. Anarcha-feminism was inspired in the late 19th century by the writings of early feminist anarchists such as [[Lucy Parsons]], [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Voltairine de Cleyre]], and even [[Dora Marsden]]. Anarcha-feminists, like other radical feminists, criticize and advocate the abolition of traditional conceptions of family, education and [[gender role]]s.\n\nMany [[anarcha-feminists]] are especially critical of marriage. For instance, Emma Goldman has argued that marriage is a purely economic arrangement and that "…[woman] pays for it with her name, her privacy, her self-respect, her very life."<ref>Goldman, "Marriage and Love", ''Red Emma Speaks'', p. 205</ref> Anarcha-feminists view patriarchy as a fundamental problem in society and believe that the feminist struggle against sexism and patriarchy is an essential component of the anarchist struggle against the [[Sovereign state|state]] and [[capitalism]]. [[L. Susan Brown|Susan Brown]] expressed the sentiment that "as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist."<ref>[[L. Susan Brown|Brown, Susan]]. "Beyond Feminism: Anarchism and Human Freedom" ''Anarchist Papers 3'' Black Rose Books (1990) p. 208</ref> There have been several male anarcha-feminists, such as the [[Anarcho communism|Anarcho-communist]] [[Joseph Déjacque]] who opposed [[Pierre Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]]'s [[Antifeminism|anti-feminist]] views."<ref>''Anarchist-Communism'' by Alain Pengam</ref> Recently, [[Wendy McElroy]] has defined a position (she describes it as "[[ifeminism]]" or "individualist feminism") that combines feminism with anarcho-capitalism or libertarianism, arguing that a pro-capitalist, anti-state position implies [[equal rights]] and [[empowerment]] for women.<ref>Wendy McElroy, ''[http://www.wendymcelroy.com/xxx/ XXX: A Woman's Right to Pornography]''.</ref> Individualist anarchist feminism has grown from the [[United States|US]]-based [[individualist anarchism]] movement.\n\n[[File:MurrayBookchin.jpg|140px|thumb|left|[[Murray Bookchin]] (1921-2006) a pioneer in the ecology movement,<ref> John Muir Institute for Environmental Studies, University of New Mexico, Environmental Philosophy, Inc, University of Georgia, ‘‘'Environmental Ethics’’’ v.12 1990: 193.</ref> he founded the social ecology movement within socialist anarchism and ecological thought.]]\n\n====Green anarchism====\n{{main|Green anarchism}}\n[[Image:Darker green and Black flag.svg|right|thumb|Green and black flag of [[Green Anarchism]].]]\nGreen anarchism (or eco-anarchism<ref>David Pepper (1996). [http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=PQOvkB7UoWgC&pg=PA44&dq= Modern Environmentalism] p 44. Routledge.</ref>) is a school of thought within anarchism which puts an emphasis on [[environmental issues]].<ref>Ian Adams (2001). [http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=apstK1qIvvMC&pg=PA130&dq= Political Ideology Today] p. 130. Manchester University Press.</ref> Important contemporary currents are [[social ecology]] and [[anarcho-primitivism]]. Many advocates of green anarchism and primitivism consider [[Fredy Perlman]] as the modern progenitor of their views. Notable contemporary writers espousing green anarchism include the techno-positives [[Murray Bookchin]], [[Janet Biehl]], [[Daniel Chodorkoff]], anthropologist [[Brian Morris (anthropologist)|Brian Morris]], and people around [[Institute for Social Ecology]]; those critical of technology such as [[Derrick Jensen]], George Draffan, and [[John Zerzan]]; and others including [[Alan Carter (philosopher)|Alan Carter]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction |last=Ward |first=Colin |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |date=2004 |isbn=0192804774}}</ref> and Stewart Davidson <ref>Stewart Davidson, 2009, 'EcoAnarchism: A Critical Defence', in the Journal of Political Ideologies, volume 14, pp. 47-67</ref>\n\nSocial ecologists, considered also a kind of socialist anarchists, often criticize the main currents of anarchism for their focus and debates about politics and economics, instead of a focus on [[eco-system]] (human and environmental) like they do. This theory promote [[libertarian municipalism]] and [[green technology]]. Anarcho-primitivists often criticize mainstream anarchism for supporting [[civilization]] and modern [[technology]] which they believe are inherently based on domination and exploitation.  They instead advocate the process of [[Rewilding (anarchism)|rewilding]] or reconnecting with the natural environment. [[Veganarchism]] is the political philosophy of [[veganism]] (more specifically [[animal liberation]]) and green anarchism.<ref name="essay">Dominick, Brian. ''Animal Liberation and Social Revolution: A vegan perspective on anarchism or an anarchist perspective on veganism'', third edition, Firestarter Press, 1997, page 1, 5 and 6.</ref> This encompasses viewing the [[Sovereign state|state]] as unnecessary and harmful to both human and animals, whilst practising a vegan diet.<ref name="essay"/>\n<br clear="all"/>\n\n== As a social movement==\nAnarchism as a [[social movement]] has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. Its classical period, which scholars demarcate as from 1860 to 1939, is associated with the working-class movements of the nineteenth century and the [[Spanish Civil War]]-era struggles against [[fascism]].<ref>Jonathan Purkis and James Bowen, "Introduction: Why Anarchism Still Matters", in Jonathan Purkis and James Bowen (eds), ''Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age'' (Manchester: [[Manchester University Press]], 2004), p.3.</ref> Also, anarchists were specially active in the [[Abolitionism|abolition of slavery]], and have been active in the [[labor movement]], [[Civil rights movement|civil rights]], [[women's liberation]], both anti-capitalism and pro-capitalism<ref name="tormey"/> (with varying definitions of capitalism), the [[anti-war movement]], [[LGBT social movements|LGBT rights]], both [[anti-globalization]] and pro-[[globalization]] (with varying definitions of globalization), [[tax resistance]], and other forms of anarchist activism. \n\n===The First International===\n[[Image:Bakuninfull.jpg|thumb|right|Collectivist anarchist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] opposed the [[Marxist]] aim of [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] in favour of universal rebellion, and allied himself with the federalists in the First International before his expulsion by the Marxists.<ref name=bbc/>]]\n\nIn Europe, harsh reaction followed the [[revolutions of 1848]], wherein ten countries experienced brief or long-term social upheaval as groups carried out nationalist revolutions. After most of these attempts at systematic change ended in failure, conservative elements took advantage of the divided groups of socialists, anarchists, liberals, and nationalists, to prevent further revolt.<ref>{{cite book |last=Breunig |first=Charles |title=The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789 - 1850 |year=1977 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |location=New York, N.Y |isbn=0-393-09143-0 }}</ref> In 1864 the [[International Workingmen's Association]] (sometimes called the "First International") united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]],<ref>{{cite book | last = Blin | first = Arnaud | title = The History of Terrorism | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 2007 | isbn = 0520247094 |page=116}}</ref> [[Blanquism|Blanquists]], [[Philadelphes]], English trade unionists, [[socialists]] and [[social democrats]]. Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organization. [[Karl Marx]] became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualists]], opposed Marx's [[state socialism]], advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings.<ref>{{cite book | last = Dodson | first = Edward | title = The Discovery of First Principles: Volume 2 | publisher = Authorhouse | page=312 | year = 2002 | isbn = 0595249124 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = Routledge & Kegan Paul | location = London | year = 1985 | isbn = 0710206852 |page=187}}</ref>\n\nIn 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the [[League of Peace and Freedom]] (LPF), [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and his associates joined the First International – which had decided not to get involved with the LPF. They allied themselves with the [[federalist]] socialist sections of the International, who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property. At first, the [[collectivist anarchism|collectivists]] worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarized into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads.<ref>{{cite book | last = Engel | first = Barbara | title = Mothers and Daughters | publisher = Northwestern University Press | location = Evanston | year = 2000 | isbn = 0810117401 |page=140}}</ref> Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as [[centralism|centralist]] and predicted that, if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the [[ruling class]] they had fought against.<ref name="bakuninmarx"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Bakunin|first=Mikhail|authorlink=Mikhail Bakunin|origyear=1873|year=1991|title=Statism and Anarchy |publisher=Cambridge University Press|id=ISBN 0-521-36973-8}}</ref> In 1872, the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the [[Hague Congress (1872)|Hague Congress]], where Bakunin and [[James Guillaume]] were expelled from the International and its headquarters were transferred to New York. In response, the federalist sections formed their own International at the [[Anarchist St. Imier International|St. Imier Congress]], adopting a revolutionary anarchist program.<ref name=Graham-05>Graham, Robert '[http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm 'Anarchism''] (Montreal: Black Rose Books 2005) ISBN 1–55164–251–4</ref>\n\n=== Organized labor===\n{{main|Anarcho-syndicalism|Anarchism in Spain|Spanish Revolution}}\nThe anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organization of labor."<ref> Resolutions from the St. Imier Congress, in ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas'', Vol. 1, p.100 [http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm]</ref> In 1886, the [[Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions]] (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada unanimously set 1 May 1886, as the date by which the [[Eight-hour day|eight-hour work day]] would become standard.<ref name='How May Day Became a Workers Holiday-resolution'>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A627662 |title=How May Day Became a Workers' Holiday |accessdate=2008-01-19 |date=4 October 2001 |work=The Guide to Life, The Universe and Everything |publisher=[[bbc.co.uk]] |quote=(It is) Resolved ... that eight hours shall constitute a legal day's labor from and after 1 May 1886, and that we recommend to labor organizations throughout this district that they so direct their laws so as to conform to this resolution by the time named. }}</ref> In response, unions across America prepared a general strike in support of the event.<ref name='How May Day Became a Workers Holiday-strike'>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A627662 |title=How May Day Became a Workers' Holiday |accessdate=2008-01-19 |date=4 October 2001 |work=The Guide to Life, The Universe and Everything |publisher=[[bbc.co.uk]] }}</ref> Upon 3 May, in Chicago, a fight broke out when replacement workers attempted to cross the picket line. Police intervention led to the deaths of four men, enraging the workers of the city. The next day, 4 May, anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square.<ref>{{cite book |last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |page=193 }}</ref> A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing an officer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.odmp.org/officer/3972-patrolman-mathias-j.-degan |title=Patrolman Mathias J. Degan |accessdate=2008-01-19 |publisher=The Officer Down Memorial Page, Inc }}</ref> In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other.<ref>''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', 27 June 1886, quoted in {{cite book |last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |page=209 }}</ref> Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed.<ref name='the bomb'>{{cite web |url=http://www.chicagohistory.org/dramas/act2/act2.htm |title=Act II: Let Your Tragedy Be Enacted Here |accessdate=2008-01-19 |year=2000 |work=The Dramas of Haymarket |publisher=Chicago Historical Society }}</ref> Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organizers of the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities among the labor movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution. The incident became known as the [[Haymarket affair]], and was a setback for the labor movement and the struggle for the eight hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organize for the eight hour day was made. The event also had the secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foner |title=May Day |page=42 }}</ref> The celebration of [[International Workers' Day]] on [[May Day]] became an annual event the following year.\n\nIn 1907, the [[International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam]] gathered delegates from 14 different countries, among which important figures of the anarchist movement, including [[Errico Malatesta]], [[Pierre Monatte]], [[Luigi Fabbri]], [[Benoît Broutchoux]], [[Emma Goldman]], [[Rudolf Rocker]], [[Christiaan Cornelissen]], etc. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement, [[popular education]] issues, the [[general strike]] or [[antimilitarism]]. A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and [[syndicalism]] (or [[trade union]]ism). Malatesta and Monatte in particular opposed themselves on this issue, as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would create the conditions of a social [[revolution]], while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient.<ref>[http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=225 Extract of Malatesta's declaration] {{fr icon}}</ref> Malatesta thought that trade-unions were [[reformism|reformist]], and could even be, at times, [[Conservatism|conservative]]. Along with Cornelissen, he cited as example [[Labor unions in the United States|US trade-unions]], where trade-unions composed of qualified workers sometimes opposed themselves to non-qualified workers in order to defend their relatively privileged position.\n\nThe Spanish Workers Federation in 1881 was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement; anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most successful was the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics and played a major role in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. The CNT was affiliated with the International Workers Association, a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the [[Confederación General del Trabajo]] (CGT) and the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]]. CGT membership was estimated to be around 100,000 for the year 2003.<ref>Carley, Mark "Trade union membership 1993–2003" (International:SPIRE Associates 2004)</ref> Other active syndicalist movements include the US [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]] and the UK [[Solidarity Federation]]. The revolutionary industrial unionist [[Industrial Workers of the World]], claiming 2,000 paying members, and the [[International Workers Association]], an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International, also remain active.\n\n=== Russian Revolution===\n{{main|Anarchism in Russia|Russian Revolution (1917)}}\n[[Image:Goldmanberkman.jpeg|thumb|right|Anarchists [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] opposed [[Bolshevik]] consolidation of power following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)]].]]\nAnarchists participated alongside the [[Bolshevik]]s in both [[February Revolution|February]] and [[October Revolution|October revolutions]], many anarchists initially supporting the Bolshevik coup. However, the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict that culminated in the 1921 [[Kronstadt rebellion]]. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. In the [[Free Territory (Ukraine)|Ukraine]], anarchists fought in the [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] against Whites and then the Bolsheviks as part of the [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]] led by [[Nestor Makhno]], who attempted to establish an anarchist society in the region for a number of months.\n\nExpelled American anarchists [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising, before they left Russia. Both wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia, criticizing the amount of control the Bolsheviks exercised. For them, [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin's]] predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of the new "socialist” Marxist state would become a new elite<ref name="bakuninmarx">"[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bakunin/works/1872/karl-marx.htm On the International Workingmen's Association and Karl Marx]" in ''Bakunin on Anarchy'', translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971</ref> had proved all too true.\n\nThe victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; [[Communist party|Communist parties]] grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the US, for example, certain members of the major syndicalist movements of the [[Confédération générale du travail|CGT]] and [[Industrial Workers of the World|IWW]] left the organizations and joined the [[Comintern|Communist International]].\n\nIn Paris, the [[Dielo Truda]] group of Russian anarchist exiles, which included [[Nestor Makhno]], concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, called the ''[[Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)]]'',<ref name="Platformtext" /> was supported. [[Platformist]] groups active today include the [[Workers Solidarity Movement]] in Ireland and the [[NEFAC|North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists]] of North America.\n\n[[Image:Members of the Maquis in La Tresorerie.jpg|thumb|left|Anti-fascist [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis]], who resisted [[Nazism|Nazi]] and [[Francisco Franco|Francoist]] rule in Europe.]]\n\n===Fight against fascism===\n{{main|Anti-fascism}}{{See also|Anarchism in Italy|Anarchism in France|Anarchism in Spain}}\nIn the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of [[fascism]] in Europe transformed anarchism's conflict with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists. [[Anarchism in Italy|Italian anarchists]] played a key role in the anti-fascist organisation ''[[Arditi del Popolo]]'', which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions and marked up numerous successful victories, including repelling [[Blackshirts]] in the anarchist stronghold of [[Parma]] in August 1922.<ref>Holbrow, Marnie, [http://www.socialistreview.org.uk/article.php?articlenumber=8205 "Daring but Divided"] (''Socialist Review'' November 2002)</ref> In France, where the [[far right leagues]] came close to insurrection in the [[6 February 1934 crisis|February 1934 riots]], anarchists divided over a [[united front]] policy.<ref>Berry, David. "Fascism or Revolution." ''Le Libertaire''. August 1936)</ref>\n\nIn Spain, the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–1939). In response to the army rebellion, an [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchist-inspired]] movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of [[Barcelona]] and of large areas of rural Spain where they [[Collective farming|collectivized]] the land. But even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the [[Stalinism|Stalinists]], who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the [[Soviet Union]]. According to [[George Orwell]] and other foreign observers, Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both [[Workers' Party of Marxist Unification|dissident Marxists]] and anarchists.\n\n==Internal issues and debates==\n{{main|Issues in anarchism}}\n<!-- In the interest of restricting article length, please limit this section to two or three short paragraphs and add any substantial information to the main Issues in anarchism article. Thank you. -->\nAnarchism is a philosophy which embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; as such, disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. The compatibility of [[anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]],<ref name=oxcom/> [[anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]] and [[anarchism and religion|religion]] with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys a complex relationship with ideologies such as [[Anarchism and Marxism|Marxism]], [[Issues in anarchism#Communism|communism]] and [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]]. Anarchists may be motivated by [[humanism]], [[Christian anarchism|divine authority]], [[ethical egoism|enlightened self-interest]] or any number of alternative ethical doctrines.\n\nPhenomena such as [[civilization]], [[technology]] (e.g. within [[anarcho-primitivism]] and [[insurrectionary anarchism]]), and [[Issues in anarchism#Participation in statist democracy|the democratic process]] may be sharply criticized within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. Anarchist attitudes towards [[Issues in anarchism#Race|race]], [[Issues in anarchism#Gender|gender]] and [[Issues in anarchism#The environment|the environment]] have changed significantly since the modern origin of the philosophy in the 18th century. \n\nOn a tactical level, while [[propaganda of the deed]] was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the [[Nihilist movement]]), contemporary anarchists espouse alternative [[direct action]] methods such as [[nonviolence]], [[counter-economics]] and [[Crypto-anarchism|anti-state cryptography]] to bring about an anarchist society. About the scope of an anarchist society, some anarchists advocate a [[global]] one, while others do so by [[local]] ones.<ref>Ted Honderich, Carmen García Trevijano, [http://books.google.es/books?id=s9iwZGv44psC&pg=PA402&dq=Enciclopedia+teor%C3%ADa+pol%C3%ADtica&lr=&as_brr=3#PPA57,M1 ''Oxford Enciclopedy of Philosophy'']</ref> The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions, which has led to many [[Issues in anarchism#Definitional concerns|definitional concerns in anarchist theory]].\n\n==See also==\n{{Anarchism portal}}\n{{main|Outline of anarchism}}\n* [[Anarchist symbolism]]\n\n==Footnotes==\n{{reflist|3}}\n\n==Further reading==\n{{main|List of anarchist books}}\n* ''[[Anarchism. A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas]].'' [[Robert Graham (historian)|Robert Graham]], editor.\n** ''Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939)'' Black Rose Books, Montréal and London 2005. ISBN 1551642506.\n** ''Volume Two: The Anarchist Current (1939–2006)'' Black Rose Books, Montréal 2007. ISBN 9781551643113.\n* ''Anarchism'', [[George Woodcock]] (Penguin Books, 1962). {{oclc|221147531}}.\n* ''Anarchy: A Graphic Guide'', [[Clifford Harper]] (Camden Press, 1987): An overview, updating Woodcock's classic, and illustrated throughout by Harper's woodcut-style artwork.\n* ''The Anarchist Reader'', George Woodcock (ed.) (Fontana/Collins 1977; ISBN 0006340113): An anthology of writings from anarchist thinkers and activists including [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], [[Errico Malatesta|Malatesta]], [[Murray Bookchin|Bookchin]], [[Emma Goldman|Goldman]], and many others.\n* ''Anarchy and the Law: The Political Economy of Choice'', Edward Stringham (Transaction Publishers, 2007; ISBN 1412805791): An overview of the major arguments and historical studies about private property anarchism.\n* ''Anarchy as Order: The History and Future of Civic Humanity'', Mohammed Bamyeh (Rowan & Littlefield, 2009). \n<!-- Please only include well-renowned works by reputable scholars which cover anarchism as a whole rather than individual currents. -->\n\n==External links==\n{{sisterlinks}}\n===General resources===\n* [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/index.html "An Anarchist FAQ Webpage"]{{ndash}}[[An Anarchist FAQ]]\n* [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/anarfaq.htm Anarchist Theory FAQ]{{ndash}}by [[Bryan Caplan]]\n* [http://www.ozarkia.net/bill/anarchism/ Anarchism Page]{{ndash}}faqs, library, resources\n* [http://www.infoshop.org/ Infoshop.org]{{ndash}}[[Infoshop.org]]; anarchist news, information, and online library.\n* [http://www.anarchism.net/ Anarchism.net]{{ndash}}a pluralist resource on anarchism\n\n===Biographical and bibliographical===\n* [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia]{{ndash}}700+ entries, with short bios, links and dedicated pages.\n* [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/ Anarchy Archives]{{ndash}}[[Anarchy Archives]]; information relating to famous anarchists including their writings.\n* [http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/ KateSharpleyLibrary.net]{{ndash}}website of the [[Kate Sharpley Library]], containing many historical documents pertaining to socialist anarchism.\n* [http://www.theyliewedie.org/ressources/biblio/index-en.php They Lie We Die]{{ndash}}anarchist virtual library containing 768 books, booklets and texts about socialist anarchism.\n* [http://mises.org/literature.aspx?action=subject&Id=123 Anarchy: Libertarian Studies]{{ndash}}[[Mises Institute]]; online collection of classical books and works about libertarian anarchism.\n* [http://praxeology.net/anarcres.htm About Market Anarchism]{{ndash}}[[Molinari Institute]]; online booklets and texts about market anarchism.\n<!-- Attention! 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